Famous American Human Rights Activists

Malcolm X was an African-American revolutionary, Muslim minister, and human rights activist who was a prominent figure during the civil rights movement. He was a vocal advocate for Black empowerment and the promotion of Islam within the African-American community. Malcolm X was a spokesman for the Nation of Islam until 1964, advocating for the separation of Black and White Americans and criticizing the mainstream civil rights movement. He later embraced Sunni Islam, founded the Islamic Muslim Mosque, Inc. and the Pan-African Organization of Afro-American Unity, and was assassinated in 1965.

Martin Luther King III is an American human rights activist, philanthropist, and advocate. He served as the fourth president of the Southern Christian Leadership Conference from 1997 to 2004. As of 2024, he holds the position of Professor of practice at the University of Virginia. Throughout his career, King has been dedicated to promoting civil rights, equality, and social justice. He continues to make significant contributions to advancing these causes through his activism, philanthropy, and educational work.

Solomon Northup was a farmer and a professional violinist from New York. He owned land in Washington County and was known for his musical talents. In 1841, he was offered a job as a traveling musician in Washington, D.C., where he was drugged and kidnapped into slavery. He spent 12 years as a slave in the Red River region of Louisiana before regaining his freedom with the help of a Canadian man. After his freedom, Northup wrote and published his memoir, Twelve Years a Slave, and became a prominent speaker for the abolitionist movement.

Fredrick Allen Hampton Sr. was a prominent American activist, known for his leadership in the Black Panther Party and the Illinois chapter. He founded the Rainbow Coalition, a multicultural political organization aimed at combating racism and classism. Hampton was a Marxist-Leninist who considered fascism a major threat. Unfortunately, his life was cut short when he was killed during a predawn raid at his Chicago apartment in 1969. His death has been widely viewed as a deliberate murder or assassination orchestrated by the FBI.

Zelda Rubinstein was an American actress known for her iconic role as Tangina Barrons in the Poltergeist film series. She also portrayed Ginny in the television series Picket Fences and made guest appearances in Poltergeist: The Legacy. Rubinstein was recognized for her vocal activism for little people and her early involvement in the HIV/AIDS advocacy movement. Additionally, she lent her voice to Skittles candies in a popular advertising campaign. Rubinstein's career showcased her versatility and dedication to both her craft and important social causes.

Lorraine Hansberry was an American playwright who made history as the first African-American woman to have a play performed on Broadway. Her most famous work, A Raisin in the Sun, shed light on the lives of black Americans in Chicago under racial segregation. She won the New York Drama Critics' Circle Award at the young age of 29. Hansberry also contributed to the Pan-Africanist movement and wrote about African struggles for liberation. Her impact extended to addressing LGBTQ+ issues in her work.

Ella Baker was an influential African-American civil rights and human rights activist known for her behind-the-scenes organizing work spanning over five decades. She collaborated with prominent leaders such as W. E. B. Du Bois, Thurgood Marshall, A. Philip Randolph, and Martin Luther King Jr. Baker mentored emerging activists like Diane Nash, Stokely Carmichael, and Bob Moses, advocating for grassroots organizing and empowering the oppressed to advocate for themselves. As the primary advisor of SNCC in the 1960s, she promoted radical democracy and critiqued racism in American culture and sexism in the civil rights movement.

Iris Chang was an accomplished American journalist, author, and political activist known for her impactful historical works. She gained widespread recognition for her bestselling book, "The Rape of Nanking," which shed light on the atrocities of the Nanjing Massacre. Additionally, her book "The Chinese in America: A Narrative History" further solidified her reputation as a prolific writer. Chang's contributions to historical literature and activism were commemorated through documentaries and biographical works that honored her legacy and dedication to preserving history.

Ed Roberts was an American activist and a trailblazer in the disability rights movement. He made history by becoming the first wheelchair user to attend the University of California, Berkeley. Roberts was a pioneering leader who advocated for equal rights and opportunities for people with disabilities. His work and advocacy helped to challenge societal perceptions and create more inclusive environments for individuals with disabilities. Through his efforts, he paved the way for greater acceptance and accessibility for the disabled community.

Yolanda Denise King was an accomplished activist, artist, and public speaker. She garnered recognition for her leadership in high school and was featured in Jet and Ebony magazines. In the 1990s, she supported a retrial and gained success in the acting industry with roles in several films. King became a supporter of gay rights and an ally to the LGBT community. She also served as a spokesperson for her mother during her illness and was involved in a sibling feud over the King Center in Atlanta, Georgia.

Angelina Emily Grimké Weld was an American abolitionist, political activist, and women's rights advocate. She gained recognition for her powerful speeches and essays advocating for the abolition of slavery and women's rights. Drawing on natural rights theory, the US Constitution, Christian beliefs, and personal experiences, Grimké passionately argued for freedom and equality for all. She faced opposition for speaking publicly to mixed audiences but courageously defended women's right to participate in political discourse. Grimké later married abolitionist leader Theodore Dwight Weld and continued her activism in the suffrage movement.

Jack Herer, also known as the "Emperor of Hemp," was an influential American cannabis rights activist and author of the book The Emperor Wears No Clothes. He founded Help End Marijuana Prohibition (HEMP) and advocated for the decriminalization of cannabis, promoting its potential as a versatile resource for fuel, medicine, food, fiber, and paper. Herer believed that cannabis cultivation could benefit both medical and economic sectors worldwide. He accused the U.S. government of concealing evidence supporting these claims from the public.

Gerda Weissmann Klein was a Polish-born American writer and human rights activist known for her autobiographical work, All But My Life, detailing her experiences during the Holocaust. She and her husband, Kurt Klein, were dedicated advocates of Holocaust education and human rights, promoting tolerance and community service. Gerda founded Citizenship Counts, a nonprofit organization emphasizing the value of American citizenship. She also served on the governing board of the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum and received the Presidential Medal of Freedom in 2011, the highest civilian award in the United States.

Lillian D. Wald was an American nurse, humanitarian, and author known for her advocacy for human rights and community nursing. She founded the Henry Street Settlement in New York City, pioneering the concept of public health nursing. Wald was a dedicated activist for women's rights and racial equality, playing a key role in the establishment of the NAACP. She also campaigned for suffrage and promoted racial integration. Throughout her professional life, Wald worked tirelessly to improve the lives of marginalized communities and advance social justice.

Noura Erakat is a prominent Palestinian-American activist, legal scholar, and human rights attorney. She serves as an associate professor at Rutgers University, with a specialization in international studies. Her professional focus primarily centers on the Israeli-Palestinian conflict, where she is known for being a vocal critic of Israel. Through her work, Erakat has contributed significantly to the discourse surrounding human rights, international law, and justice in the context of the Middle East.

Walter Reuther was a prominent American labor leader and civil rights activist who transformed the United Automobile Workers (UAW) into a progressive force for social justice. He leveraged the UAW's influence to advocate for workers' rights, civil rights, women's rights, healthcare, education, housing, environmental protection, and nuclear nonproliferation globally. Reuther co-founded the AFL-CIO and played a key role in major legislative achievements, including the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and the establishment of programs like Medicare and Medicaid. His impact extended to international negotiations and grassroots movements, earning him recognition as a visionary leader.

Shirley Graham Du Bois was a prolific American-Ghanaian professional known for her significant contributions as a writer, playwright, composer, and activist. She dedicated her career to advocating for African-American causes and social justice issues. Graham Du Bois was recognized for her impactful work with prestigious awards, including the Messner and the Anisfield-Wolf prizes. Through her writings and plays, she effectively highlighted important societal issues and inspired change, leaving a lasting legacy in the realms of literature, theater, and activism.

Princess Sarah Zeid of Jordan is a respected humanitarian and maternal and newborn health activist. She has made significant contributions to the field through her advocacy and efforts in promoting better healthcare services for mothers and babies. As a prominent figure, she has used her platform to raise awareness and support initiatives aimed at improving maternal and child health outcomes. Her dedication and commitment to this cause have earned her recognition and respect both nationally and internationally.

Jacob M. Appel is an accomplished American polymath known for his diverse expertise in various fields. He is a renowned author, playwright, bioethicist, physician, lawyer, and social critic. Appel's notable contributions include his compelling short stories, impactful work in reproductive ethics, organ donation, neuroethics, and euthanasia. His novel, The Man Who Wouldn't Stand Up, received critical acclaim by winning the prestigious Dundee International Book Prize. Appel serves as the director of Ethics Education in Psychiatry and a professor of psychiatry and medical education at Mount Sinai School of Medicine, where he practices emergency psychiatry. He is also the focus of the documentary film Jacob.

Maggie Kuhn was an American activist who founded the Gray Panthers movement after being forced to retire at 65. The Gray Panthers advocated nursing home reform and fought ageism, believing that older individuals and women were an untapped human energy source. Kuhn dedicated her life to fighting for human rights, social and economic justice, global peace, integration, and mental health awareness. She combined activism with caregiving for her disabled mother and mentally ill brother, making significant contributions to various causes throughout her career.

Charles W. Chesnutt was an American author, essayist, political activist, and lawyer known for exploring complex racial and social issues in the post-Civil War South through his novels and short stories. His works gained renewed interest after the Civil Rights Movement, leading to new editions and formal recognition. Chesnutt also established a successful court reporting business in Cleveland, Ohio, and actively supported the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People by writing articles advocating for education and challenging discriminatory laws.

Yuri Fyodorovich Orlov was a prominent figure in the fields of particle accelerator physics and human rights activism. He was a key player in the establishment of the Moscow Helsinki Group and the Soviet Amnesty International group. Orlov's dedication to monitoring human rights accords led to his imprisonment and internal exile, during which he was recognized as a prisoner of conscience. After his release, he emigrated to the U.S. and continued his career as a physics professor at Cornell University.

Geronimo Pratt was a decorated military veteran who served in Vietnam before joining the Black Panther Party in the late 1960s. He was wrongfully convicted for murder in 1972, spending 27 years in prison, including eight in solitary confinement. His conviction was overturned in 1997 due to withheld evidence. Pratt later worked as a human rights activist and was a key figure in the Black Panther Party. He passed away in 2011 and was known as a dedicated advocate for social justice.

Warren Aloysious Kimbro was a prominent figure within the Black Panther Party, serving as a member in New Haven, Connecticut. His professional life was marked by his involvement in the New Haven Black Panther trials in 1970, where he was found guilty of the murder of fellow Panther Alex Rackley. This event highlighted Kimbro's role within the organization and the challenges faced by Black Panther Party members during that time.

Ophelia Dahl is a British-American social justice and health care advocate who co-founded Partners In Health (PIH), a non-profit organization dedicated to providing healthcare for the poor. She served as executive director for 16 years and currently chairs its board of directors. Dahl played a key role in the PIH team and was featured in Tracy Kidder's book "Mountains Beyond Mountains." She has received recognition for her work, including the Union Medal from Union Theological Seminary and being listed as one of the most influential people in the world by TIME.

William Manning Marable was a distinguished American professor at Columbia University, specializing in public affairs, history, and African-American Studies. He was the founder and director of the Institute for Research in African-American Studies. Marable was a prolific writer, authoring numerous texts and actively engaging in progressive political causes. His crowning achievement was the posthumous publication of his biography on Malcolm X, titled "Malcolm X: A Life of Reinvention," for which he was awarded the Pulitzer Prize for History in 2012.

Alan Lomax was an American ethnomusicologist known for his field recordings of folk music in the 20th century. He was a musician, folklorist, archivist, writer, scholar, political activist, oral historian, and filmmaker. Lomax played a vital role in preserving folk music traditions in the US and England, contributing to the American and British folk revivals. He collected thousands of songs and interviews, highlighting artists like Robert Johnson, Woody Guthrie, and Lead Belly. Lomax's work focused on advocating for cultural equity and promoting folk music through recordings, concerts, radio shows, and films.

Charlotte Forten Grimké was a dedicated African American anti-slavery activist, poet, and educator. She taught freedmen in South Carolina during the Civil War and had a long career as a schoolteacher. Her diaries, written before the end of the Civil War, provide a rare insight into the life of a free black woman in the antebellum North. Grimké's professional life was marked by her commitment to education, civil rights, and her contributions to the abolitionist movement.

Shields Green was an escaped slave from Charleston, South Carolina, who became a leader in John Brown's raid on Harpers Ferry in 1859. He lived in Rochester, New York, with Frederick Douglass, who introduced him to Brown. Despite surviving the raid, Green was tried, convicted, and executed by hanging. Douglass eulogized him alongside iconic rebels Nat Turner and Denmark Vesey. Green was recognized as a courageous figure in the fight against slavery, mentioned in articles alongside other historical Black heroes like Jean-Jacques Dessalines and Toussaint l'Ouverture.

Kerry Kennedy is an American lawyer, author, and human rights activist known for her work in advocating for human rights causes. She serves as the president of Robert F. Kennedy Human Rights, a non-profit organization dedicated to promoting and protecting human rights globally. With a background in law, she has been actively involved in legal advocacy and writing on various social justice issues. Kerry Kennedy's professional life is marked by a commitment to advancing human rights through her work in the legal and nonprofit sectors.

Leon Howard Sullivan was a Baptist minister, civil rights leader, and social activist who dedicated his professional life to creating job training opportunities for African Americans. He served as a General Motors Board Member for many years, where he advocated for equality and diversity in the workplace. Sullivan was also known for his anti-Apartheid activism, fighting against racial segregation in South Africa. His impactful work in various fields left a lasting legacy, inspiring positive change and empowerment within marginalized communities.

Michelle Alexander is an American writer, attorney, and civil rights activist. She gained widespread recognition for her influential book, The New Jim Crow: Mass Incarceration in the Age of Colorblindness, published in 2010. Alexander has been a prominent figure in advocating for criminal justice reform and addressing issues of racial discrimination within the legal system. In addition to her impactful writing, she has also contributed to public discourse as an opinion columnist for the New York Times since 2018.

Avijit Roy was a Bangladeshi-American engineer, online activist, writer, and blogger. He was known for creating and managing Mukto-Mona, an Internet community for Bangladeshi freethinkers, rationalists, skeptics, atheists, and humanists. Roy advocated for free expression in Bangladesh and organized global protests against government censorship and the imprisonment of atheist bloggers. Tragically, he was killed in Dhaka by machete-wielding attackers associated with the Islamic militant group Ansarullah Bangla Team. His professional life was dedicated to promoting freedom of thought and challenging oppressive ideologies.

Ayọ Tometi, formerly known as Opal Tometi, is an American human rights activist, writer, strategist, and community organizer. She co-founded Black Lives Matter (BLM) and previously served as the executive director of the Black Alliance for Just Immigration (BAJI), the first national immigrant rights organization for people of African descent in the United States. Tometi has been actively involved in advocating for human rights, migrant rights, and racial justice globally. She also has experience working as a case manager for survivors of domestic violence.

Randall Robinson was an American lawyer, author, and activist renowned for founding TransAfrica and his staunch opposition to apartheid. He gained recognition for advocating on behalf of Haitian immigrants and President Jean-Bertrand Aristide. In 2001, expressing frustration with American society, he emigrated to Saint Kitts. Throughout his career, Robinson was a prominent voice for social justice, using his platform to address issues of racial inequality and human rights violations both domestically and internationally.

Andrew Koenig was an accomplished American character actor, film director, editor, writer, and human rights activist. He gained recognition for his portrayal of Richard "Boner" Stabone in the popular TV series Growing Pains. Koenig's diverse talents extended beyond acting, as he delved into directing, editing, and writing. His passion for human rights activism further showcased his commitment to social causes. Throughout his career, Koenig made significant contributions to the entertainment industry and used his platform to advocate for important societal issues.

Helen Prejean is a Catholic nun and prominent advocate for the abolition of the death penalty in the United States. She gained widespread recognition for her bestselling book "Dead Man Walking" (1993), which chronicles her experiences as a spiritual adviser to death row inmates. The book was adapted into a successful film and opera. Prejean served as the National Chairperson of the National Coalition to Abolish the Death Penalty and played a key role in establishing The Moratorium Campaign. Additionally, she founded groups to support families affected by murder and related crimes.

Madeline McDowell Breckinridge was a prominent American leader in the women's suffrage movement in Kentucky. She championed progressive reforms in education, child labor, and public health, founding various civic organizations to address these issues. Her advocacy led to significant changes in the state, including the granting of women's voting rights in 1920. Recognized as the most influential woman in Kentucky, Breckinridge's legacy is honored through her inclusion in Kentucky Women Remembered and the display of her portrait at the state capitol.

Levi Coffin was an American Quaker, Republican, abolitionist, farmer, businessman, and humanitarian. He was an active leader of the Underground Railroad in Indiana and Ohio, assisting an estimated three thousand fugitive slaves. Coffin was a successful merchant and business leader, becoming a major investor in the local bank. He later moved to Cincinnati where he ran a warehouse selling only free-labor goods. Coffin continued his anti-slavery efforts by assisting hundreds of runaway slaves while also establishing aid societies in France and Great Britain.

Moncure Daniel Conway was an American abolitionist minister and radical writer who spent much of his life abroad in England and France. He was associated with various religious affiliations including Methodist, Unitarian, and Freethinker. Conway was known for his biographies of notable figures such as Edmund Randolph, Nathaniel Hawthorne, and Thomas Paine. He also wrote his own autobiography. Conway was a prominent leader of freethinkers at London's South Place Chapel, which is now known as Conway Hall.

Eliza Farnham was a prominent figure in 19th-century America known for her work as a novelist, feminist, abolitionist, and prison reform activist. She used her writing to advocate for social change, particularly focusing on women's rights and the abolition of slavery. As an activist for prison reform, Farnham worked to improve conditions for inmates and championed the idea of rehabilitation over punishment. Her dedication to these causes made her a respected and influential voice in the movements for social justice during her time.

Lady Miss Kier, also known as Kierin Magenta Kirby, is a prominent American singer, songwriter, and DJ. She is best known as the vocalist of the band Deee-Lite, which achieved international success in the 1990s. In addition to her musical career, Lady Miss Kier is recognized for her advocacy work in social, environmental, and human rights causes. She has used her platform to raise awareness and promote positive change in various global issues, showcasing her commitment to making a difference beyond her music career.

Fannie Barrier Williams was an American educator, civil rights, and women's rights activist known for her groundbreaking achievements. She was the first black woman to join the Chicago Woman's Club and played a vital role in advocating for black representation on the Board of Control of the World's Columbian Exposition in 1893. In addition to her activism, Williams was a talented musician and portraitist. She also dedicated time to studying foreign languages, showcasing her diverse skill set and passion for cultural understanding.

Alan Berkman was an American physician and activist known for his involvement in Students for a Democratic Society and Weather Underground. He went to prison for armed robbery and explosives possession related to activities of these organizations. After serving eight years, Berkman focused on providing medical care to the homeless. He founded Health GAP, an organization aimed at improving access to AIDS pharmaceuticals in the world's poorest nations. Throughout his professional life, Berkman was dedicated to advocating for social justice and healthcare equity.

Mary Hunt was a prominent figure in the United States temperance movement, advocating for total abstinence and prohibition of alcohol. She wielded significant influence in determining which children's textbooks aligned with her views on the dangers of alcohol. Throughout her career, Hunt was known for her tireless efforts to promote temperance and shape public opinion on the issue. However, questions arose about the financial management of the organization she was involved with following her passing, casting a shadow over her otherwise impactful professional legacy.

Luis Kutner was a prominent US human rights activist, lawyer, and FBI informant. He served on the National Advisory Council of Amnesty International, played a key role in the creation of the living will concept, and was a strong advocate for "world habeas corpus" to safeguard individual human rights globally. Kutner co-founded World Habeas Corpus, an organization dedicated to advocating for international policies protecting individuals from unjust imprisonment. His papers are archived at the Hoover Institution Archives, reflecting his significant contributions to the realm of human rights advocacy.

Ann Preston was a pioneering American physician, activist, and educator known for her significant contributions to the field of medicine. As the head of the Woman's Medical College of Pennsylvania, she made history by becoming the first female dean of a medical school in the United States. Preston's leadership and dedication to advancing medical education for women played a crucial role in breaking gender barriers within the medical profession. Her legacy continues to inspire future generations of female healthcare professionals.

Willie Beatrice Barrow was an influential American civil rights activist and minister. She co-founded Operation PUSH (later named Operation Breadbasket) alongside Rev. Jesse Jackson, contributing significantly to the civil rights movement. In 1984, she made history by becoming the first woman executive director of a civil rights organization, serving as Push's CEO. Barrow's dedication and leadership skills were evident throughout her career, earning her the respect and admiration of many, including being named the godmother of President Barack Obama.

Alison Des Forges was an American historian and human rights activist known for her expertise in the African Great Lakes region, focusing on the Rwandan genocide of 1994. She served as a senior advisor for the African continent at Human Rights Watch, where she dedicated her career to advocating for human rights and documenting atrocities. Des Forges was widely respected for her extensive research, writing, and advocacy work, which significantly contributed to raising awareness and promoting justice for victims of human rights violations in the region.

Loung Ung is a Cambodian-American human-rights activist, lecturer, and national spokesperson for the Campaign for a Landmine-Free World and the International Campaign to Ban Landmines. She has been involved in advocating for landmine awareness and supporting victims of war. Ung has used her personal experiences as a survivor of the Khmer Rouge regime to educate others and promote peace. Through her writing and public speaking, she has raised awareness about the atrocities of war and the importance of human rights.

Clemantine Wamariya is a Rwandan-American author, speaker, and human rights advocate. She gained international attention after appearing on The Oprah Winfrey Show and has since pursued a career as a storyteller, including giving a TED talk. Wamariya published a book titled The Girl Who Smiled Beads in 2018, recounting her experiences. She is a 2019 recipient of the Alex Awards for her impactful work in sharing her story and advocating for human rights.

James T. Shotwell was a prominent history professor known for his significant contributions to international organizations. He played a key role in the establishment of the International Labour Organization (ILO) in 1919 and was influential in advocating for the inclusion of a human rights declaration in the UN Charter. Shotwell's expertise in history and diplomacy led him to become a respected figure in shaping global policies and promoting social justice initiatives on an international scale.

Anna Adams Gordon was a prominent American social reformer known for her leadership in the Temperance movement. As the national president of the Woman's Christian Temperance Union during the adoption of the Eighteenth Amendment, she played a key role in advocating for the prohibition of alcohol. Gordon's efforts as a songwriter and organizer helped galvanize support for temperance initiatives across the country. Her dedication and influence as a major figure in the Temperance movement left a lasting impact on American society during the late 19th and early 20th centuries.

Diane Nash is a prominent American civil rights activist known for her leadership and strategic contributions to the Civil Rights Movement. She played a crucial role in numerous successful campaigns, such as the integration of lunch counters in Nashville, the Freedom Riders initiative, co-founding the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee, and working on voting rights projects in Alabama and Selma. Nash's efforts were instrumental in the passage of the Voting Rights Act of 1965, which aimed to ensure equal voting rights for African Americans and other minorities. Her significant contributions were recognized when she was awarded the Presidential Medal of Freedom in July 2022.

Maria Weston Chapman was an American abolitionist known for her significant contributions to the anti-slavery movement. She was elected to the executive committee of the American Anti-Slavery Society in 1839, showcasing her leadership and dedication to the cause. From 1839 to 1842, Chapman served as the editor of the influential anti-slavery journal, The Non-Resistant. Through her work as an editor and activist, she played a crucial role in spreading awareness and advocating for the abolition of slavery in the United States.

Henry Viscardi Jr. was a prominent American disability rights advocate known for championing equality and employment opportunities for disabled individuals. He founded Abilities, Inc. in 1952, which later became the Viscardi Center, a leading organization advocating for the empowerment of people with disabilities. He established the Human Resources School (later renamed the Henry Viscardi School) to provide equal educational opportunities for children with disabilities. Viscardi served as an advisor to multiple US presidents, contributing to significant policy changes in the disability sector. He authored the book "Give Us The Tools" and inspired the Henry Viscardi Achievement Awards.

Vang Pobzeb was a prominent Hmong American figure known for his dedicated advocacy for Lao and Hmong human rights. Over the span of 25 years, he fearlessly criticized the Marxist governments of the Pathet Lao in Laos and the Socialist Republic of Vietnam (SRV) for their numerous human rights violations, including restrictions on religious freedom and persecution of the Lao and Hmong communities. Pobzeb's professional life was marked by his unwavering commitment to shedding light on these injustices and fighting for the rights of marginalized groups.

Mildred Loving's professional life was marked by her role in the landmark civil rights case, Loving v. Virginia. Alongside her husband, Richard Loving, she fought against Virginia's anti-miscegenation laws that banned interracial marriage. Their case ultimately led to the Supreme Court decision in 1967 that declared such laws unconstitutional, establishing the right to marry across racial lines. Mildred's courage and determination in challenging this discriminatory practice left a lasting impact on civil rights and paved the way for greater equality in marriage laws.