Famous Iranian Emperors & Kings

Cyrus the Great, founder of the Achaemenid Persian Empire, was a visionary leader who conquered vast territories in West and Central Asia. Known for respecting local customs and religions, he established a central administration system to govern his empire's satraps. His Edict of Restoration allowed the Jewish people to return to their homeland, leaving a lasting legacy on Judaism. Cyrus was revered as a biblical messiah and is recognized for his contributions to human rights, politics, and military strategy, shaping the national identity of Iran and spreading Zoroastrianism.

Mohammad Reza Pahlavi was the last monarch of Iran, ruling from 1941 until his overthrow in 1979. He led rapid industrial and military modernization, implemented economic and social reforms, and introduced the White Revolution to transform Iran into a global power. Under his rule, Iran saw significant economic growth, modernization of infrastructure, nationalization of key industries, and investments in education and health. Pahlavi's focus on defense spending made Iran's military one of the world's strongest. Political unrest led to his exile in 1979.

Xerxes I was a Persian ruler and the fourth King of Kings of the Achaemenid Empire. He consolidated power by suppressing revolts in Egypt and Babylon, inheriting a vast empire upon his father's death. Xerxes is best known for his failed invasion of Greece in 480 BC, culminating in defeats at Thermopylae, Artemisium, and Salamis. He oversaw significant construction projects in Persia, completing various structures left unfinished by his father. Xerxes was assassinated in 465 BC, succeeded by his son Artaxerxes I.

Reza Shah Pahlavi was an Iranian military officer and politician who served as minister of war and prime minister of Qajar Iran. He later became the Shah of Pahlavi Iran, reigning from 1925 until he was forced to abdicate in 1941. Known as a modernizer, he clashed with the Shia clergy but introduced significant social, economic, and political reforms. Reza Shah was appointed as the legal monarch of Iran in 1925, founding the Pahlavi dynasty that lasted until its overthrow in 1979.

Darius I, also known as Darius the Great, was the third King of Kings of the Achaemenid Empire. He ruled at the empire's peak, expanding its territories across Western Asia, parts of Europe, Africa, and Central Asia. Darius ascended the throne by overthrowing the previous monarch and faced rebellions, including a failed expedition to Greece. He centralized the empire by dividing it into provinces, introducing a uniform monetary system, making Aramaic a co-official language, and implementing standardized measures. Darius undertook extensive construction projects and left inscriptions to record his conquests.

Nader Shah Afshar was a formidable military leader who founded the Afsharid dynasty of Iran. Rising to power during a period of turmoil, he reunified Iran and expelled foreign invaders. Known for his military genius and brutal tactics, he conducted successful campaigns across the Middle East and Central Asia, expanding his empire to include vast territories. Revered for his conquests and compared to historical conquerors like Genghis Khan and Timur, Nader Shah ultimately met a violent end, leading to the disintegration of his empire and a period of civil unrest in Iran.

Ismail I was the founder and first shah of Safavid Iran, ruling from 1501 until his death in 1524. He established the Safavid Empire, which became one of the greatest Iranian empires in history. Ismail I reasserted Iranian identity in Greater Iran and expanded the empire's territories to include present-day Iran, Azerbaijan, Armenia, Georgia, and parts of Iraq, Afghanistan, Syria, and more. He proclaimed Twelver Shia Islam as the official religion, causing significant religious and sectarian changes in the Middle East. Ismail I was also a skilled poet contributing to Azerbaijani and Persian literature.

Artaxerxes I of Persia, the fifth King of Kings of the Achaemenid Empire, ruled from 465 to December 424 BC. Known as "Long-handed," his reign was marked by consolidating power, maintaining stability within the empire, and overseeing significant construction projects. He faced challenges from rebellions and external threats but managed to maintain control and expand the empire's influence. Artaxerxes I was a skilled administrator, diplomat, and military strategist, leaving a legacy of a well-governed and prosperous Persian Empire during his rule.

Ardashir I, also known as Ardashir the Unifier, was the founder of the Persian Sasanian Empire. He overthrew the Arsacid dynasty and established the Sasanian dynasty after defeating the last Parthian shahanshah. Ardashir unified and expanded his empire by conquering territories and carving petroglyphs to mark his victories. He developed royal ideology, emphasizing his connection to god and portraying his reign as legitimate. Ardashir's rule marked a significant shift in Iranian history, establishing the title "Iran" for the region under Sasanian control.

Yazdegerd III was the last Sasanian King of Kings of Iran, reigning from 632 to 651. Ascending the throne at a young age, he faced challenges with limited authority, as power was held by army commanders and aristocrats. The Sasanian Empire weakened due to internal conflicts and faced invasions from the Göktürks and Khazars. Ultimately, Yazdegerd was unable to halt the Arab invasion, leading to his demise in 651, marking the end of the pre-Islamic Iranian empire after over 400 years of rule.

Darius II Ochus, also known as Darius Nothos, was King of Kings of the Achaemenid Empire from 423 to 405 or 404 BC. He ascended to the throne after a period of turmoil involving the murder of his brother Xerxes II and the suppression of rebellion. Historians have limited information about his reign, but he faced challenges such as the Mede rebellion in 409 BC. Darius II appeared to rely heavily on his wife Parysatis, and was involved in harem intrigues according to accounts from Ctesias.

Khosrow I, known as Anushirvan, was the Sasanian King of Kings of Iran from 531 to 579. He inherited an empire at war with the Byzantines, signing the Perpetual Peace treaty in 532. He focused on consolidating power, executing conspirators and expanding territory through wars in Lazica and against the Byzantines. Khosrow implemented major social, military, and economic reforms, established a professional army, and promoted art and science, making him the most distinguished of the Sasanian kings.

Artaxerxes III, also known as Ochus, rose to power within the Achaemenid Empire after a series of family tragedies. As a former satrap and military commander, he ascended the throne and swiftly eliminated potential threats to his rule by executing or murdering all members of the royal family. He launched two significant campaigns against Egypt, ultimately succeeding in bringing the country back under Persian control. In his later years, he faced challenges from Philip II of Macedon's growing influence in Greece, actively opposing his attempts to incite Greek revolts. Artaxerxes also oversaw construction projects at Persepolis, including a new palace, his tomb, and the Unfinished Gate.

Malik-Shah I was the third sultan of the Seljuk Empire, ruling from 1072 to 1092. During his reign, the empire reached its peak in power and influence. He succeeded his father, Alp Arslan, after a contested succession with his uncle Qavurt. Despite being the nominal head, his vizier Nizam al-Mulk held significant power. Malik-Shah focused on campaigns against the Karakhanids and establishing order in the Caucasus. His death remains a mystery, with theories suggesting poisoning by either the Abbasid caliph or Nizam al-Mulk's supporters.

Tahmasp I was the second shah of Safavid Iran, ruling for nearly fifty-two years. He established an absolute monarchy after civil wars and faced conflicts with the Ottoman Empire and Uzbeks. Tahmasp was a patron of the arts, particularly painting, and built a royal house for artists. He was known for his religious zeal for Shia Islam, granting privileges to clergy. Tahmasp negotiated alliances with Christian powers and sought to reduce Qizilbash influence on Safavid politics.

Abbas I of Persia was the fifth shah of Safavid Iran, ruling from 1588 to 1629. He is considered one of the greatest rulers in Iranian history. Abbas presided over the apex of Safavid Iran's military, political, and economic power. He implemented reforms such as the ghilman system, which included Circassian, Georgian, and Armenian slave-soldiers. Abbas successfully eclipsed the power of the Qizilbash and expanded Iranian rule and influence in various regions, including Transcaucasia, Dagestan, Eastern Anatolia, and Mesopotamia. He also moved the capital to Isfahan, a city known for Safavid architecture.

Cambyses I was the king of Anshan during the 6th century BC. He ruled from around 580 to 559 BC. Cambyses I's reign marked a period of stability and consolidation of power in the region. He played a crucial role in laying the groundwork for the future successes of his son, Cyrus the Great. Cambyses I was respected for his leadership skills and strategic decision-making, setting the stage for the expansion and prosperity of the Persian Empire under his descendants.

Arses of Persia, also known as Artaxerxes IV, ruled as the twelfth Achaemenid King of Kings from 338 to 336 BC. He ascended the throne after his father Artaxerxes III was poisoned by the eunuch Bagoas. Arses attempted to break free from Bagoas' control by plotting to poison him, but instead fell victim to poison himself. Bagoas then placed Arses' cousin Darius III on the throne. Arses' reign was marked by internal struggles and external threats, ultimately leading to his untimely demise at the hands of Bagoas.

Muhammad of Ghor was a powerful ruler from the Ghurid dynasty, known for extending Islamic rule in South Asia. He subjugated the Oghuz Turks, captured Multan and Uch, and conquered the upper Indus Plain and most of the Punjab. He secured the Khyber Pass and expanded into the Gangetic Plain, defeating the Rajput Confederacy at Tarain. Muhammad faced challenges from Turkish rivals but quelled insurrections and launched campaigns into Transoxiana and the Salt Range. His assassination led to the decline of the Ghurid Empire but paved the way for the Delhi Sultanate.

Karim Khan Zand was the founder of the Zand dynasty and ruled Iran (Persia) from 1751 to 1779. During his reign, he brought stability and prosperity to the war-torn country, overseeing a period of tranquillity and economic growth. He restored relations with Britain, allowing the East India Company to establish a trading post in southern Iran. Karim Khan made Shiraz his capital and commissioned various architectural projects in the city. His death marked the beginning of a decline as civil war erupted, eventually leading to the Qajar ruler taking over Iran.

Cyrus I, an early member of the Achaemenid dynasty, reigned as King of Anshan while his brother ruled Parsa. He is suggested to have been an ally of Babylon against Assyria, paying tribute to Assyrian rulers after their conquests. His reign potentially connected the Achaemenid dynasty to major events of the 7th century BC. Cyrus may have ended his days under the overlordship of Media or Babylon, succeeded by his son Cambyses I. His legacy lives on through his grandson, Cyrus the Great, founder of the Persian Empire.

Artaxerxes II was the King of Kings of the Achaemenid Empire from 405/4 BC to 358 BC. He faced challenges early in his reign, including a rebellion by his brother Cyrus the Younger and subsequent revolts by various factions. Despite these struggles, he managed to maintain control and authority over his vast empire. He was also revered by the rulers of the Parthian Empire as their progenitor, highlighting his significant influence and legacy in the region.

Mithridates I, also known as Mithridates I the Great, ruled as king of the Parthian Empire from 165 BC to 132 BC. During his reign, he expanded Parthia's territory significantly through conquests, transforming the kingdom into a major political power in the Ancient East. He conquered various regions including Aria, Margiana, Bactria, Media, Atropatene, Babylonia, Elymais, and Characene, solidifying Parthia's influence. Mithridates I adopted the prestigious title of King of Kings, likened to Cyrus the Great, further emphasizing his significant achievements before his death in 132 BC.

Bessus, also known as Artaxerxes V, was a Persian satrap of the eastern Achaemenid satrapy of Bactria. He rose to power after killing the legitimate ruler Darius III and declared himself King of Kings of the Achaemenid Empire. Bessus attempted to resist Alexander the Great's conquest of the eastern empire but faced internal opposition and eventually fled to Sogdia. Betrayed by his own officers, he was captured and executed by Alexander at Ecbatana. In Persian epic Shahnameh, Bessus is mentioned as Janusipar/Janushyar.

Abbas Mirza was a prominent military commander in Persia, known for his role in various wars including the Russo-Persian conflicts and the Ottoman-Persian War. Despite facing significant defeats resulting in territorial losses to Russia, he is recognized for modernizing Persia's armed forces and institutions. Abbas Mirza's strategic leadership during these conflicts shaped the outcome of the wars, although ultimately unfavorable for Persia. He was noted for his intelligence, literary interests, and relatively simple lifestyle, making him a significant figure in Persian military history.

Bahram V, also known as Bahram Gur, was the Sasanian King of Kings from 420 to 438. Raised under the tutelage of the Lakhmid kings, he swiftly gained favor in the Sasanian capital of Ctesiphon after his father's assassination. His reign was marked by relative peace, with conflicts against the Eastern Roman Empire and Kidarites. Bahram V's legacy includes the establishment of a new era in Armenia and his portrayal in famous Persian literary works, showcasing his generosity, love for music, and passion for hunting.

Deioces was the founder and first King of the Median kingdom in western Asia. He successfully gained independence from the Neo-Assyrian Empire and ruled for 53 years. Deioces' reign marked a significant period of consolidation and establishment of the Median kingdom. His leadership and governance enabled the Medes to assert their autonomy and thrive in the region. Following his death, his son Phraortes took over the kingdom, continuing the legacy of his father's rule.

Sogdianus briefly ruled the Achaemenid Empire for around six months in 424–423 BC. His reign was largely undocumented and is primarily known through the writings of the unreliable historian Ctesias. Sogdianus was believed to be an illegitimate son of Artaxerxes I. Despite his short rule and limited recognition, Sogdianus held the position of ruler of the Achaemenid Empire, albeit briefly.

Xerxes II was a Persian king who briefly ruled the Achaemenid Empire after succeeding his father, Artaxerxes I. He only had control over the Persian heartlands for forty-five days before being assassinated by his half-brother Sogdianus. Xerxes II is primarily known from the writings of Ctesias and is recognized as the legitimate son of Artaxerxes I. His reign was marked by political turmoil and power struggles within the empire, leading to his untimely death and the eventual ascension of Darius II as the sole ruler of Persia.

Ulugh Beg, a Timurid sultan, was renowned for his contributions to astronomy and mathematics, particularly in trigonometry and spherical geometry. Fluent in five languages, he fostered cultural and intellectual growth during his rule, leading the Timurid Empire to a peak of cultural prosperity. Notably, he built the impressive Ulugh Beg Observatory in Samarkand, recognized as one of the finest Islamic observatories. Despite his scientific achievements, Ulugh Beg's governance was weak, leading to his overthrow and assassination due to his lack of control and authority.

Lotf Ali Khan was the final ruler of the Zand dynasty, reigning from 1789 to 1794. During his rule, he faced internal rebellions and external threats from the rising Qajar dynasty. He struggled to maintain control over his kingdom and faced challenges in asserting his authority. Despite his efforts to strengthen his rule, he ultimately faced defeat in battle and was captured and executed, marking the end of the Zand dynasty and the beginning of Qajar rule in Iran.

Nabonidus was a notable figure in the ancient Mesopotamian world, serving as the last king of the Neo-Babylonian Empire. He was regarded as an innovative ruler, often depicted as an unorthodox religious reformer and possibly the first archaeologist. Nabonidus worked to elevate the status of the moon god Sîn over Babylon's traditional deity Marduk. He also engaged in the reconstruction of key religious sites, such as the temple dedicated to Sîn in Harran. Despite facing challenges and going into self-imposed exile, Nabonidus continued to assert his authority as king until his empire fell to Cyrus the Great.

Bahram Chobin, also known as Mehrbandak, was a nobleman, general, and political leader of the late Sasanian Empire. Starting as the governor of Ray, he rose to become the army chief of northwestern regions after capturing Dara from the Byzantines. Known for his skills and achievements, Bahram played a significant role in defeating Hephthalite-Turkic invaders in Khorasan. Despite being distrusted by King Hormizd IV, Bahram rebelled against the Sasanian Empire, aiming to restore the Arsacid Empire. After a series of events, including battles and alliances, Bahram Chobin met his demise at the hands of Khosrow II.

Enmebaragesi was the penultimate king of the first dynasty of Kish, reigning for 900 years according to the Sumerian King List. He played a crucial role during a period when Kish held hegemony over Sumer. Known for marking a transition from mytho-history to history, Enmebaragesi is significant as the earliest ruler on the king list whose name is directly attested from archaeology. His professional life was marked by leadership, governance, and the establishment of historical records that provide valuable insights into ancient Sumerian civilization.

Mithridates II, known as Mithridates the Great, ruled the Parthian Empire from 124 to 91 BC. Considered one of the greatest of his dynasty, he stabilized the empire by subduing rebellious kingdoms in Mesopotamia and the Caucasus. He expanded Parthian rule into Armenia, Iberia, and possibly Caucasian Albania. Mithridates II conquered Bactria, reconquered Sakastan, and extended his authority over northern Mesopotamian kingdoms. Under his reign, the Parthian Empire reached its zenith, establishing diplomatic relations with Rome and Han China. A champion of Achaemenid traditions, he emphasized the dynasty's association with the Iranian Achaemenid Empire through titles and coin imagery.

Shapur III was the Sasanian King of Kings of Iran from 383 to 388. His reign was marked by diplomatic settlements with the Romans over Armenia and the loss of Kabul to the Alchon Huns. He commissioned a rock relief at Taq-e Bostan, depicting him alongside his father, showcasing his commitment to preserving royal history. Shapur III's tragic end came when he was crushed by his collapsing tent due to a conspiracy by nobles, leading to his untimely death in 388.

Ismail Samani was a prominent Samanid amir who ruled over Transoxiana and Khorasan. His reign marked the rise of the Samanids as a significant power in the region. He led his dynasty with strength and strategic acumen, solidifying their influence and authority. Ismail's leadership was instrumental in shaping the political landscape of the time, establishing a legacy of power and stability that endured beyond his rule.

Gondophares I was the founder and most prominent king of the Indo-Parthian Kingdom, ruling from 19 to 46. He led the transformation of his kingdom into an empire, achieving independence from Parthian authority. Gondophares likely hailed from a line of local princes in Drangiana and may have been a member of the House of Suren. His reign saw the expansion of his empire to include Drangiana, Arachosia, and Gandhara. Gondophares is known from historical accounts, inscriptions, and coins bearing his likeness.

Sasan was a prominent figure in Persia, serving as a Zoroastrian high priest in Pars during the transition from the Arsacid Empire to the Sasanian Dynasty. Known for his skills as a warrior and hunter, he played a crucial role in establishing the new dynasty. Sasan's leadership and influence were instrumental in shaping the political and religious landscape of the region. His dedication to his faith and his adeptness in military affairs earned him respect and admiration among his contemporaries.

Narseh, the seventh Sasanian King of Kings of Iran, started his professional life as the governor of Sakastan, Hind, and Turan under his father, Shapur I. He later became the Great King of Armenia, a crucial frontier province. Narseh's ascent to the throne was marked by political intrigue, with him being asked by the nobility to rule instead of the incumbent Bahram III. He engaged in conflicts with the Romans, achieving both victories and defeats, ultimately leading to a peace treaty that ceded territory to the Romans. Narseh is remembered for reinstating his father's policy of religious tolerance.

Kaykaus II was the sultan of the Seljuqs of Rûm from 1246 to 1262. During his reign, he focused on strengthening the economy and military of the empire. He implemented various reforms to improve governance and infrastructure. Kaykaus II also engaged in diplomatic relations with neighboring states and successfully navigated political challenges. His leadership contributed to the stability and prosperity of the Seljuq Empire during a critical period, leaving a legacy of strategic vision and effective governance.

Arsaces I was the first king of Parthia, establishing the Arsacid dynasty in the mid-3rd century BC by conquering the satrapy of Parthia from the Seleucid Empire. He consolidated his rule, resisting Seleucid reconquest attempts, laying the foundations of a strong state. Despite limited literary sources and historical doubts, modern studies and archaeological evidence have verified his existence and contributions to the formation of the Parthian Empire. Arsaces I's legacy as a successful ruler is reflected in his name being used as a royal honorific by later Arsacid monarchs.

Bahram I was the fourth Sasanian King of Kings of Iran, reigning from 271 to 274. He succeeded his brother Hormizd I and his reign marked the end of Sasanian tolerance towards Manichaeism. With support from the Zoroastrian priest Kartir, Bahram I imprisoned and executed the founder of Manichaeism, Mani. His reign was largely uneventful, and he was succeeded by his son Bahram II.

Orodes II was the King of Kings of the Parthian Empire from 57 BC to 37 BC. He came to power by murdering his father, Phraates III, and triumphing in a dynastic struggle with his brother. Orodes successfully defended Parthian territory against Roman incursions, notably defeating Roman general Crassus in the Battle of Carrhae. He also engaged in alliances and conflicts with various Roman factions during the Republican civil wars. Orodes ultimately relinquished the throne to his son Phraates IV before his own death.

Yazdegerd II was the Sasanian King of Kings of Iran from 438 to 457. He engaged in wars against the Eastern Roman Empire and the Kidarites, while striving to centralize power by enforcing Zoroastrianism. This resulted in a rebellion in Armenia. Despite this, he allowed religious freedom in the country. He was the first Sasanian ruler to use the title of kay, linking the dynasty to the Kayanian dynasty. His death sparked a power struggle between his sons Hormizd III and Peroz I.

Bahram II was the fifth Sasanian King of Kings of Iran, ruling from 274 to 293. He faced challenges such as rebellions in the east and Khuzestan, as well as a Zoroastrian factional revolt. He dealt with a Roman invasion by Emperor Carus, ultimately reclaiming Mesopotamia after Carus's death. Bahram II strengthened Sasanian authority in the Caucasus by securing the Iberian throne. He minted coins featuring his family and ordered the carving of rock reliefs emphasizing his family and high nobility.

Vologases I was the King of Kings of the Parthian Empire from 51 to 78. During his reign, he focused on maintaining stability within the empire and continuing the policies set forth by his predecessors. He successfully navigated internal political challenges and external threats to uphold the strength of the Parthian Empire. Vologases I's leadership and strategic decision-making contributed to the overall prosperity and security of the empire during his time as ruler.

Cyaxares, the third king of the Medes, rose to power in 625 BCE after his father's demise in a battle with the Assyrians. He strategically allied with the Babylonians to overthrow the Assyrian Empire, successfully uniting various Iranian groups in ancient Iran. Through his leadership, Media emerged as a significant regional force, marking a transformative period in the region's history. Cyaxares demonstrated political acumen and military prowess, securing his legacy as a skilled ruler who expanded his kingdom's influence and power.

Tughril, a Turkoman chieftain, founded the Seljuk Empire and ruled from 1037 to 1063. He united Turkoman warriors into a confederacy, conquering Khorasan and Persia. Establishing the Seljuk Sultanate after taking Baghdad from the Buyids, he marginalized the Abbasid Caliphs. Tughril led military campaigns against the Byzantine Empire and the Fatimids to expand his empire and unify the Islamic world. Under his rule, Persia experienced peace and prosperity, transitioning from constant warfare to stability, with the Seljuks adopting Iranian-Muslim culture.

Ghazan Khan was the seventh ruler of the Ilkhanate division of the Mongol Empire in Iran. He converted to Islam upon ascending the throne, marking a shift in the dominant religion of the Mongols in West Asia. During his reign, Ghazan engaged in military conflicts with the Mamluk Sultanate and the Chagatai Khanate. He also pursued diplomatic relations with Europe, aiming for a Franco-Mongol alliance. Ghazan was known for his cultural interests, multilingualism, and reforms in currency and fiscal policies within the Ilkhanate.

Ardashir II served as the Sasanian King of Kings of Iran from 379 to 383, succeeding his brother Shapur II. Prior to his reign, he had been the vassal king of Adiabene and had actively fought alongside his brother against the Romans. He was appointed as an interim ruler until Shapur III reached adulthood. Ardashir II's reign was marked by unsuccessful efforts to maintain control over Armenia. Known for his strong-willed nature, he was also referred to as "the beneficent" in some historical sources.

Antiochus VII Sidetes, also known as Antiochus the Pious, was the ruler of the Hellenistic Seleucid Empire from July/August 138 to 129 BC. He was the last Seleucid king of any stature, and his reign marked the decline of the Seleucid Empire. Antiochus VII was known for his military campaigns and battles, especially against the Parthians and Jews. His death in battle led to the shrinking of the Seleucid realm to just Syria, signaling the end of the once-powerful empire.

Agha Mohammad Khan Qajar was the founder and Shah of the Qajar dynasty of Iran, ruling from 1789 to 1797. He successfully centralized and unified Iran during his reign and relocated the capital to Tehran. Known for his cruel behavior during military campaigns in Georgia and Kerman, he was also recognized as a pragmatic and shrewd leader. Agha Mohammad Khan's professional life was marked by his strategic military and political decisions, culminating in the establishment of a more centralized Iranian state.

Vologases III of Parthia reigned from 110 to 147 and faced significant challenges during his rule. His reign was marked by civil strife, warfare, and conflicts with rival claimants to the throne. He successfully reclaimed lost territory from usurpers and defeated contenders seeking power. Vologases III also navigated invasions by the Alans and responded strategically to the expanding Kushan Empire and Roman interference in Armenia. His reign saw both military victories and diplomatic challenges, ultimately leading to his succession by Vologases IV in 147.

Antiochus III the Great was a Greek Hellenistic king and the 6th ruler of the Seleucid Empire. Rising to the throne at a young age, he expanded the empire's territory through military conquests. He assumed the title Basileus Megas, reflecting his ambition and achievements in restoring Seleucid territory. Antiochus III declared himself the champion of Greek freedom against Roman domination, leading a war against the Roman Republic but suffering a decisive defeat at the Battle of Magnesia. He died while campaigning in the east.

Sinatruces of Parthia ruled as king of the Parthian Empire from approximately 75 BC to around 69 BC. Some historians suggest he may have been related to the Parthian ruler Mithridates I, possibly as a son or younger brother. Sinatruces' reign was followed by his son Phraates III taking the throne. He played a significant role in the political landscape of the Parthian Empire during his time as king.

Artabanus II of Parthia ascended to power as King of Kings of the Parthian Empire after ruling over Media Atropatene. He strategically attacked and defeated the Roman-supported Parthian king Vonones I, leading to Vonones I fleeing to Armenia. Artabanus' attempts to install his son as the new king of Armenia were thwarted by the Romans, resulting in an agreement to appoint Artaxias III instead. His reign was marked by political maneuvering and military campaigns to secure his position within the region.

Artabanus IV, also known as Ardavan IV, ascended to the throne of the Parthian Empire following the death of his father, Vologases V. His reign, lasting from approximately 213 to 224, marked the final chapter of the Parthian Empire. Artabanus IV faced challenges from internal strife and external invasions during his rule. Despite his efforts to stabilize the empire, he ultimately could not prevent its decline. His professional life was characterized by attempts to maintain control and preserve the fading power of the Parthians.

Pacorus II ruled as the King of Kings of the Parthian Empire from 78 to 110. He succeeded his father, Vologases I, and faced challenges from his brother Vologases II and another contender, Artabanus III. Pacorus continued the policies of Artabanus II, focusing on economic growth and expanding Parthian influence in regions like Khwarazm, Bactria, and the Hindu Kush. Under his reign, the depiction of the Greek goddess Tyche on Parthian coins became more prominent, reflecting the empire's cultural and economic connections with other powers.

Vologases V was King of Kings of the Parthian Empire from 191 to 208. He also ruled as King of Armenia from 180 to 191. During his reign, he placed his son on the throne of Iberia and later passed the Armenian throne to another son. Vologases faced conflicts with the Roman Empire, leading to the brief capture of Ctesiphon. Internal strife within the Parthian realm saw a Persian prince seizing control of Persis. Vologases' reign was characterized by both external wars and internal power struggles.

Yazdegerd I, the Sasanian King of Kings from 399 to 420, is known for his largely-uneventful yet competent reign characterized by efforts of renewal. He fostered positive relations with the Eastern Roman Empire, overseeing the guardianship of Theodosius. Yazdegerd I's friendly interactions with Jews and Christians, acknowledged in 410, led to him being hailed as the new Cyrus the Great. However, his religious and peaceful policies met opposition from the nobility and Zoroastrian clergy, ultimately leading to his demise in the northeast.

Phraortes, the second king of the Median kingdom, followed in his father Deioces' footsteps by engaging in wars against Assyria. Despite his efforts, Phraortes was ultimately defeated and killed by the Assyrian king, most likely Ashurbanipal. His reign was characterized by military campaigns and attempts to expand Median territory, but his ambitions were thwarted by the superior forces of Assyria. Phraortes' professional life was marked by his dedication to defending and advancing the interests of the Median kingdom through military means, ultimately meeting his demise in battle.

Balash ascended to the throne of the Sasanian Empire after the death of his brother Peroz I. His reign was marked by efforts to stabilize the empire following the defeat and death of Peroz I at the hands of the Hephthalites. Balash worked to restore order and strengthen the empire's defenses against external threats. Despite facing challenges, he sought to rebuild and consolidate power during his relatively short rule as the King of Kings of Iran from 484 to 488.

Bahram IV served as the Sasanian King of Kings of Iran from 388 to 399. Prior to his reign, he held the title of Kirmanshah while governing the province of Kirman. During his rule, he deposed an insubordinate vassal in Armenia and successfully defended his empire against the Huns. Bahram IV oversaw the establishment of new mints in his empire, marking the regular use of mint signatures. His reign was cut short by the nobility, leading to his assassination, after which he was succeeded by his brother Yazdegerd I.

ʿAḍud al-Dawla, a prominent emir of the Buyid dynasty, rose to power as a skilled ruler known for his vast empire spanning from Makran to Yemen. He demonstrated leadership by quelling rebellions, consolidating his rule, and assuming the title of Shahanshah. In his efforts to promote stability, he banned public unrest in Baghdad and supported Shia scholars and shrines. Notable projects under his patronage include the construction of an observatory, a significant dam, and the Haffar channel, showcasing his commitment to science and infrastructure development.

Phraates III, King of Kings of the Parthian Empire from 69 BC to 57 BC, faced challenges with the rise of Armenia and Pontus under powerful rulers. He sought to restore Parthia's former dominance in the region through strategic alliances and calculated actions. Phraates III engaged in military campaigns, including a campaign into Armenia with his son-in-law Tigranes the Younger. Despite some setbacks, he managed to reclaim territories and negotiate peace agreements with key players like Pompey and Tigranes. His reign ended tragically with his assassination by his sons, leading to a civil war.

Phraates II ruled the Parthian Empire from 132 BC to 127 BC. His reign was marked by conflict with the Greek Seleucid Empire, particularly with King Antiochus VII Sidetes. Initially facing challenges, Phraates II eventually emerged victorious, defeating Antiochus VII's forces. He then successfully repelled an invasion by nomadic tribes, the Saka and Yuezhi. However, his reign was cut short when he met his end while dealing with this invasion. Phraates II was succeeded by his uncle Artabanus I.

Shah Rukh was the ruler of the Timurid Empire between 1405 and 1447. He controlled the main trade routes between Asia and Europe, including the Silk Road, amassing immense wealth. His capital was in Herat, where he fostered a flourishing cultural environment. As a patron of the arts and sciences, Shah Rukh prioritized stability in his lands and maintained diplomatic relations with neighboring kingdoms. He was known as an Islamic sultan, distinguished by his piety, diplomacy, and modesty, in contrast to the conqueror-warlord image of his father.

Vonones I was an Arsacid prince who ruled as King of Kings of the Parthian Empire from 8 to 12. Subsequently, he became the king of Armenia from 12 to 18. He was sent to Rome as a hostage in 10/9 BC to prevent conflict over the succession of his youngest brother, Phraataces. Vonones I's professional life was marked by his roles as a ruler in both the Parthian Empire and Armenia, showcasing his influence and diplomatic skills in navigating complex political situations.

Vologases IV was the King of Kings of the Parthian Empire from 147 to 191. During his reign, he focused on re-establishing Parthian authority over the Kingdom of Characene. He engaged in a significant conflict with the Roman Empire from 161 to 166, initially achieving success by capturing Armenia and Syria. However, the tide turned, leading to losses and a temporary Roman occupation of Parthian capitals. Vologases ultimately lost control of northern Mesopotamia to the Romans before his death in 191.

Vologases VI was the uncontested king of the Parthian Empire from 208 to 213, ruling over Seleucia until 221/2. Despite facing a dynastic struggle with his brother Artabanus IV, Vologases VI maintained control and continued to have coin mints in Mesopotamia until 228. He was ultimately defeated by the Sasanian Empire, who succeeded the Parthians as the rulers of Iran. Vologases VI's professional life was marked by his reign as king, his control over Seleucia, and his presence in Mesopotamia until his defeat by the Sasanians.

Gotarzes I ruled as the king of the Parthian Empire for a brief period from 91 BC to either 87 or 80 BC. He succeeded his father, Mithridates II, on the throne and was followed by his son, Orodes I. During his reign, Gotarzes I faced various challenges and conflicts typical of the Parthian Empire, but ultimately his rule was relatively short-lived compared to other Parthian kings. Despite the brevity of his reign, Gotarzes I played a significant role in the history of the Parthian Empire.

Artabanus I was the ruler of the Parthian Empire for a brief period from around 127 to 124/3 BC. He met his demise during a battle with the Yuezhi in the eastern region. Despite his short reign, Artabanus I played a significant role in the history of the Parthian Empire, overseeing key events and decisions during his time in power. He was succeeded by his son Mithridates II, who continued his legacy as the new ruler of the empire.

Gotarzes II of Parthia rose to power through seizing the throne from his brother and consolidating control over the Parthian Empire. He successfully forced his brother to flee and ultimately ruled until his death. Despite the initial controversy surrounding his ascension, Gotarzes II managed to establish himself as a strong and effective ruler, maintaining power and stability within the empire. His reign marked a period of significant political and military achievements, solidifying his legacy as a prominent figure in Parthian history.