Famous Turkish Emperors & Kings

Suleiman I, also known as Suleiman the Magnificent, was the longest-reigning sultan of the Ottoman Empire, ruling from 1520 until his death in 1566. He led successful military campaigns in Central Europe and the Mediterranean, expanding Ottoman territories significantly. Suleiman was a prominent monarch in 16th-century Europe, overseeing the empire's economic, military, and political peak. He implemented major judicial reforms, harmonizing sultanic and religious law. Suleiman was also a poet, goldsmith, and patron of culture, contributing to the Ottoman Empire's artistic and architectural golden age.

Mehmed II, also known as Mehmed the Conqueror, was a powerful leader who ruled the Ottoman Empire twice. In his first reign, he defeated a crusade led by John Hunyadi and later strengthened the Ottoman Navy. Mehmed's most significant achievement was the conquest of Constantinople at the young age of 21, ending the Byzantine Empire. He claimed the title of caesar of Rome and continued his conquests in Anatolia and Southeast Europe, implementing political and social reforms while promoting arts and sciences. Mehmed's rebuilding efforts transformed Constantinople into a prosperous imperial capital.

Mahmud of Ghazni, also known as Mahmud Ghaznavi, was the Sultan of the Ghaznavid Empire from 998 to 1030. He continued the bureaucratic, political, and cultural customs of his predecessors, the Samanids, establishing a future Persianate state in Punjab, with Lahore as a central city. Mahmud's reign saw the transformation of his kingdom into an extensive military empire, reaching from northwestern Iran to the Indian subcontinent, Transoxiana, and Makran. He was known for his military conquests and plundering of wealthy cities to build his capital in Ghazni.

Selim I, known as Selim the Grim or Selim the Resolute, was the Sultan of the Ottoman Empire from 1512 to 1520. His reign was marked by significant expansion, including the conquest of the Mamluk Sultanate of Egypt. This conquest shifted the empire's center of power to the Middle East and established the Ottomans as the leading Muslim state. Selim's role as guardian of the pilgrimage routes to Mecca and Medina solidified the Ottoman Empire's position in the Muslim world. He is remembered as the first legitimate Ottoman Caliph, symbolizing the empire's leadership in the Muslim world.

Abdul Hamid II was the 34th Sultan of the Ottoman Empire, ruling from 1876 to 1909. He oversaw a period of decline marked by rebellions, wars, and territorial losses. He initially promoted progressive reforms, including the Empire's first constitution, but later consolidated power as an absolute monarch. Despite modernization efforts, his rule was marred by repressive policies, leading to opposition from constitutionalists, ethnic minorities, and nationalist movements. Ultimately, he was deposed by pro-constitutionalist forces in the Young Turk Revolution of 1908.

Ahmed I was the Sultan of the Ottoman Empire from 1603 to 1617. His reign is significant for ending the tradition of royal fratricide among Ottoman rulers. He is also renowned for overseeing the construction of the Blue Mosque, a famous landmark in Turkey. Ahmed I's professional life was marked by his efforts to bring about changes in succession practices and his contributions to architectural heritage through the construction of the iconic Blue Mosque.

Mehmed IV, also known as Mehmed the Hunter, was the Sultan of the Ottoman Empire from 1648 to 1687. He ascended the throne at a young age following a coup. Mehmed oversaw the empire's resurgence during the Köprülü era, leading to territorial expansion in Europe. His reign was marked by military victories and political stability, earning him the title of gazi, or "holy warrior." Despite facing challenges, Mehmed's rule was characterized by his piety and successful conquests until his overthrow in 1687.

Bayezid I, also known as Bayezid the Thunderbolt, ruled as the sultan of the Ottoman Empire from 1389 to 1402. He adopted the title of Sultan-i Rûm, reflecting his conquest of Anatolia and his unsuccessful sieges of Constantinople. Bayezid defeated the Beyliks, expanded Ottoman territory, and emerged victorious in the Battle of Nicopolis against the Crusaders. However, his reign ended tragically when he was defeated and captured by Timur at the Battle of Ankara in 1402, leading to his death and the Ottoman Interregnum.

Murad III, the Sultan of the Ottoman Empire from 1574 to 1595, oversaw significant military conflicts with the Habsburgs and Safavids. He temporarily brought Morocco under Ottoman control and expanded influence in Africa. Despite successes, his reign faced challenges like corruption and inflation. Murad III strengthened ties with Elizabethan England against the Spanish, fostering diplomatic relations. A notable patron of the arts, he commissioned renowned manuscripts like the Siyer-i-Nebi, showcasing his support for cultural endeavors.

Abdülmecid I was the 31st Sultan of the Ottoman Empire, known for his significant contributions to the restructuring of the empire through the Tanzimat Edict in 1839. His reign saw the emergence of nationalist movements within Ottoman territories, prompting reforms aimed at promoting Ottomanism and curbing separatist sentiments. Abdülmecid fostered alliances with Western powers, particularly the United Kingdom and France, culminating in the Ottoman Empire's inclusion in the Concert of Europe. His diplomatic efforts, along with internal reforms, marked a pivotal era in Ottoman history.

Mahmud II was the sultan of the Ottoman Empire from 1808 to 1839. Known as the "Peter the Great of Turkey," he implemented significant administrative, military, and fiscal reforms. He disbanded the conservative Janissary corps, paving the way for further modernization efforts. Mahmud faced challenges such as Ottoman military defeats and territorial losses due to nationalist uprisings and European interventions. He undertook reforms to strengthen royal authority, establish a modern army, and improve administrative efficiency, leaving a legacy of modernization for his successors.

Caracalla, a Roman emperor from 198 to 217 AD, was known for issuing the Antonine Constitution, granting Roman citizenship to all free men in the empire. He oversaw the construction of the Baths of Caracalla and introduced a new Roman currency. However, his reign was marked by domestic instability, external invasions, and brutal massacres. Caracalla embarked on a campaign against the Parthian Empire but was assassinated by a soldier before its completion. He is often depicted in historical accounts as a cruel tyrant and a ruthless ruler.

Constantine XI Palaiologos was the last Byzantine emperor, known for his military prowess and leadership. He served as a skilled general and administrator, trusted by his brother Emperor John VIII Palaiologos as a regent. Constantine successfully defended the Morea against attacks, extended Roman rule in Greece, and led campaigns to reclaim lost territories. As emperor, he faced challenges including the lack of an heir, religious conflicts, and the growing threat of the Ottoman Empire, ultimately leading to his heroic death defending Constantinople in 1453.

Murad II was a skilled ruler who served as the Sultan of the Ottoman Empire twice. During his reign, there was significant economic growth, characterized by increased trade and the expansion of Ottoman cities. He effectively managed the empire's resources, leading to a substantial increase in annual revenue. Murad II's strategic decisions and leadership contributed to the empire's strength, positioning it favorably for potential military campaigns and further expansion into Europe.

Mehmed I, also known as Mehmed Çelebi or Kirişçi, ruled the Ottoman Empire from 1413 to 1421. He successfully reunited the Ottoman state by bringing Anatolia and Rumelia under his control after a period of internal conflict. Known as "The Restorer," he reestablished central authority in Anatolia and expanded Ottoman presence in Europe by conquering Wallachia in 1415. Despite facing setbacks like the loss of his fleet to Venice in 1416, Mehmed I's reign was marked by efforts to consolidate and strengthen the Ottoman Empire.

Mehmed V Reşâd was the penultimate sultan of the Ottoman Empire, reigning from 1909 to 1918. As a constitutional monarch, he generally stayed out of government affairs, despite his ministries often disregarding the constitution. His reign was marked by political strife among Young Turks factions, multiple coups, wars, and uprisings. The loss of territories in North Africa and Europe during conflicts like the Italo-Turkish War and the Balkan Wars, as well as the Ottoman Empire's involvement in World War I, characterized Mehmed V's tumultuous professional life.

Sultan Ibrahim of the Ottoman Empire reigned from 1640 to 1648. He was known as Ibrahim the Mad due to his controversial behavior and mental state. Despite rumors of insanity, some historians argue he was more incompetent than mad. Ibrahim's rule was marked by internal strife and mismanagement, leading to challenges within the empire. His reign was characterized by political instability and struggles for power among the Ottoman elite.

Orhan Ghazi was the second sultan of the Ottoman Empire, ruling from 1323/4 to 1362. He focused on expanding Ottoman territories in northwestern Anatolia, successfully conquering areas under Byzantine rule. Orhan strategically took advantage of Byzantine civil wars to further strengthen his influence. He formed alliances through marriages and employed Ottoman warriors to gain advantages in conflicts. Orhan's military prowess and strategic alliances allowed the Ottomans to establish a strong presence in Europe. He was regarded as a wealthy and powerful ruler by contemporary scholars.

Alexios I Komnenos was a Byzantine emperor who ruled from 1081 to 1118. He faced constant warfare but managed to curb the empire's decline through military, financial, and territorial recovery. Alexios sought help from Western Europe against the Seljuk Turks, which led to the First Crusade. Under his reign, the Komnenos family rose to power, establishing hereditary succession. He successfully repelled Norman invasions, defeated the Pechenegs, and restored Byzantine control over western Anatolia with the support of the Crusaders.

Selim II, also known as Selim the Blond or Selim the Drunkard, ruled the Ottoman Empire from 1566 to 1574. Despite being an unexpected heir, he ascended to the throne after the deaths of his brothers. During his reign, his grand vizier Sokollu Mehmed Pasha played a prominent role in governance. Selim's accomplishments included the conquest of Cyprus and Tunis, although he faced setbacks in battles such as Lepanto and the failed capture of Astrakhan in the war with Russia.

Mehmed III was the Sultan of the Ottoman Empire and a military leader who commanded the Ottoman army in the Long Turkish War, securing victories such as the decisive Battle of Keresztes. He was known for ordering the execution of his brothers and successfully quelling the Jelali rebellions. Mehmed also engaged in diplomatic efforts, communicating with the court of Elizabeth I to strengthen commercial relations and potentially form an alliance with England against the Spanish.

Murad I was the sultan of the Ottoman Empire from 1362 to 1389. He successfully expanded Ottoman territories in Southern Europe, bringing the Balkans under Ottoman rule and establishing Edirne as the new capital. Murad I demonstrated strong leadership by forcing tribute from neighboring rulers and implementing administrative reforms, dividing his realm into the provinces of Anatolia and Rumelia. His military conquests and strategic governance solidified Ottoman power and influence during his reign.

Abdul Hamid I was the 27th Sultan of the Ottoman Empire, reigning from 1774 to 1789. During his rule, he faced significant challenges, including wars with Russia and Austria. Abdul Hamid I worked to stabilize the empire's economy and strengthen its military capabilities. He implemented administrative reforms and sought to improve relations with European powers. His reign was marked by efforts to modernize the empire and maintain its territorial integrity amidst external threats and internal unrest.

Zeno served as the Eastern Roman emperor from 474 to 475 and again from 476 to 491. His reign was marked by domestic revolts and religious discord, but he achieved success in foreign affairs. Zeno is credited with stabilizing the Eastern empire, while the Western Roman Empire fell under his rule. He faced challenges from various revolts and conflicts, including dealing with Ostrogothic leaders. Zeno also attempted to reconcile religious differences but faced opposition from Pope Felix III, leading to the Acacian schism.

Leo III the Isaurian was the Byzantine Emperor from 717 to 741. He founded the Isaurian dynasty and brought stability to the empire by ending the Twenty Years' Anarchy. Leo III successfully defended the empire against the Umayyad invaders, halting territorial losses suffered in the 7th century. He also implemented an iconoclastic policy, forbidding the veneration of icons. Known as the Syrian, Leo III's professional life was marked by military victories, political reforms, and religious controversies.

Constantine VII Porphyrogenitus was the fourth Byzantine emperor of the Macedonian dynasty. During his reign, he was influenced by various co-regents. He is renowned for his contributions to agronomy and for compiling important works such as Geoponika and several books. Notable among his works are De Administrando Imperio, De Ceremoniis, De Thematibus, and possibly Vita Basilii. The epithet porphyrogenitus, referencing his birth in the Purple chamber, emphasized his legitimate status as the son of a reigning emperor, securing his position in the line of succession.

Selim III ruled as the Sultan of the Ottoman Empire from 1789 to 1807. He was known for his enlightened approach to governance. Despite his efforts to reform and modernize the empire, he faced opposition from the Janissaries, leading to his eventual deposition and imprisonment. His cousin Mustafa IV was installed as the new sultan by the Janissaries. Selim III was tragically assassinated by a group of conspirators following his dethronement.

Honorius was Roman emperor from 393 to 423, ruling the western half of the empire under the regency of Stilicho. His reign over the Western Roman Empire was marked by instability and chaos, with the sack of Rome in 410 being a significant event. Despite his efforts to govern, Honorius faced numerous challenges and his rule was characterized by precariousness. His professional life was defined by the difficulties of managing a crumbling empire and the pressures of external threats.

Murad IV was the sultan of the Ottoman Empire from 1623 to 1640. Known for restoring the authority of the state, he assumed absolute power in 1632 after being brought to power by a palace conspiracy at a young age. His reign was marked by the Ottoman–Safavid War, resulting in the partition of the Caucasus and laying the foundation for modern Turkey–Iran–Iraq borders. Murad IV's methods were often brutal, reflecting his determination to strengthen the Empire during a turbulent period.

Justinian II, known as "the Slit-Nosed," was the last Byzantine emperor of the Heraclian dynasty. He ruled from 685 to 695 and then again from 705 to 711. Justinian II was ambitious and passionate about restoring the Roman Empire's former glory. His reign was marked by brutal responses to opposition, leading to his deposition in 695. He regained power in 705 with the help of a Bulgar and Slav army but ruled even more despotically. He was eventually killed by mutinous soldiers in 711.

Mahmud I was the Sultan of the Ottoman Empire from 1730 to 1754, ascending to power after suppressing the Patrona Halil rebellion. During his reign, he focused on delegating governmental matters to his viziers while indulging in poetry writing. Mahmud I engaged in wars with Persia and faced conflicts in Europe. He took advantage of Nader Shah's campaign weakening the Mughal Empire to initiate warfare with the support of Muhammad Shah. He also prohibited Freemasonry in the Ottoman Empire in 1748, contributing to his efforts in maintaining authority and stability.

Justin I, a former peasant, climbed the ranks of the army to become commander of the imperial guard. Upon Emperor Anastasius's death, he skillfully navigated political challenges to become the Eastern Roman emperor. His reign saw the founding of the Justinian dynasty, which included his nephew Justinian I and three subsequent emperors. Known for his orthodox Christian beliefs, he played a key role in ending the Acacian schism and fostering good relations with the papacy. Justin emphasized the religious aspect of his rule, passing edicts against non-Orthodox Christian groups and using religion as a tool in foreign affairs. He strategically cultivated client states and avoided major conflicts until later in his reign.

Murad V was the Sultan of the Ottoman Empire for a brief period in 1876. He advocated for transforming the government into a constitutional monarchy and played a key role in the overthrow of his uncle, Sultan Abdulaziz. However, Murad V's reign was characterized by instability due to his fragile physical and mental health. After ruling for only 93 days, he was deposed in favor of his half-brother, Abdul Hamid II.

Arcadius served as Roman emperor from 383 until his death in 408. He ruled the eastern half of the empire following his father's passing in 395, while his brother governed the west. Considered a weak ruler, Arcadius's reign was characterized by the influence of powerful ministers and his wife, Aelia Eudoxia. Despite his limitations, he played a significant role in shaping the political landscape of the eastern Roman Empire during his time in power.

Mustafa III reigned as the Sultan of the Ottoman Empire from 1757 to 1774. During his rule, he implemented various reforms to stabilize the empire's finances and strengthen its military. He focused on improving administrative efficiency and promoting cultural and artistic development. Mustafa III also engaged in diplomatic relations with European powers and sought to maintain Ottoman influence in international affairs. His reign saw advancements in trade and commerce, as well as the construction of several significant architectural projects.

Heraclius, Byzantine emperor from 610 to 641, led a successful revolt against Emperor Phocas with his father. His reign was marked by military campaigns, including the Byzantine–Sasanian War where he defeated the Persians at the Battle of Nineveh. He lost lands to the Rashidun Caliphate but implemented reforms to combat the Arabs. Heraclius changed the official language of the Empire to Greek, engaged in diplomatic relations with the Croats and Serbs, and attempted to reconcile the Christian church schism through monothelitism, ultimately unsuccessful.

Constantine IV, known as the Younger, was the Byzantine emperor from 668 to 685. During his reign, he successfully defended Constantinople from Arab invasions, marking a significant halt to Islamic expansion. He also played a key role in stabilizing the Byzantine Empire after years of conflict and internal strife. Constantine IV's most notable achievement was presiding over the Sixth Ecumenical Council, where the monothelitism controversy was resolved. His efforts in religious matters led to his veneration as a saint in the Eastern Orthodox Church.

Michael VIII Palaiologos reigned as Byzantine emperor from 1261 to 1282, previously serving as co-emperor of the Empire of Nicaea. He founded the Palaiologan dynasty and led the recovery of Constantinople from the Latin Empire, revitalizing the Byzantine Empire. His reign saw significant military and naval expansion, city reconstruction, and population growth in Constantinople. He re-established the University of Constantinople, fostering a cultural renaissance. However, his successors faced challenges, leading to internal conflicts that weakened the empire and allowed for territorial fragmentation.

Basil I, known as "the Macedonian," was a Byzantine emperor from 867 to 886. Rising from humble origins, he gained favor at the imperial court and became co-emperor before seizing power by orchestrating the assassination of Emperor Michael III. Basil I was an effective ruler, implementing significant legal reforms and achieving military successes against various foes, including the Paulicians. He also pursued alliances in the west, notably with the Carolingian emperor Louis II, leading to increased Byzantine influence in Italy.

Manuel II Palaiologos was the Byzantine emperor from 1391 to 1425. He faced various challenges during his reign, including conflicts with the Ottoman Empire and attempts to secure alliances with Western powers. Manuel II was known for his diplomatic efforts and intellectual pursuits, engaging in dialogues with Western scholars and leaders. He also played a role in promoting the union of the Eastern and Western churches. Towards the end of his life, he made the decision to become a monk and took the name Matthew.

Phocas, a former middle-ranking officer in the Eastern Roman army, gained prominence as a spokesman for dissatisfied soldiers in disputes with Emperor Maurice. He emerged as the leader of a successful army revolt in 602, overthrowing Maurice and declaring himself emperor. Phocas faced challenges in domestic and foreign affairs and responded with increasing ruthlessness, alienating many. His regime relied on relatives in key positions, but he struggled to effectively address threats from Avars, Slavs, and the Sasanian Empire. He was ultimately overthrown and executed by Heraclius in 610.

Nikephoros I began his career as genikos logothetēs under Empress Irene before overthrowing her to become Byzantine emperor. He was known for his previous roles as "the Logothete" and "Genikos." As emperor, he led military campaigns against the Arabs and Bulgarians, with mixed results. His defeat and death at the Battle of Pliska during an invasion into Bulgaria marked the end of his reign.

Mehmed VI Vahideddin was the last Sultan of the Ottoman Empire and the penultimate Ottoman Caliph. His reign was marked by defeat in World War I, leading to the legal occupation of Istanbul and other parts of the empire. Facing nationalist resistance and pressure from the Allies, Mehmed VI's rule saw the dissolution of the Nationalist-dominated Chamber of Deputies and the signing of the Treaty of Sévres. Ultimately, he was deposed as Caliph and Sultan, leading to the establishment of the Republic of Turkey.

Julian was a Roman emperor known for his rejection of Christianity and promotion of Neoplatonic Hellenism. He was a notable philosopher and author in Greek, earning the nickname "Julian the Apostate" in Christian tradition. Despite being orphaned at a young age, he received a Greek education and became unusually cultured for an emperor of his time. Julian successfully ruled Gaul, defeating Germanic raids and restoring prosperity to the provinces. He embarked on an ambitious campaign against the Sasanian Empire but was mortally wounded during the Battle of Samarra.

Romanos IV Diogenes was a Byzantine emperor who sought to strengthen the empire's military and resist Turkish incursions. Rising to prominence as a successful Akritai commander, he campaigned against the Seljuk Turks with limited success. His reign was marked by unpopular policies and conflicts with the Doukas family. Defeated and captured at the Battle of Manzikert in 1071, he was deposed and blinded by the Doukas family. Romanos ultimately died of his wounds in exile in 1072.

Bayezid II was the sultan of the Ottoman Empire from 1481 to 1512. He focused on consolidating the empire, putting down rebellions, and ensuring stability. Bayezid played a key role in aiding Sephardi Jews fleeing persecution in Spain, resettling them in Ottoman territories, particularly in Salonica. He actively managed the affairs of the empire, making strategic decisions to maintain its strength and influence. Bayezid's reign was marked by his efforts to protect his subjects and expand the empire's reach through diplomatic and military means.

Michael III, also known as Michael the Drunkard, was the Byzantine emperor from 842 to 867. He was the last member of the Amorian dynasty. Despite the disparaging epithet given to him by historians of the succeeding Macedonian dynasty, modern research has shown his reign played a vital role in the resurgence of Byzantine power in the 9th century. Michael III was the youngest person to bear the imperial title and the youngest to succeed as senior emperor, showcasing his significance in Byzantine history.

Mustafa IV served as the Sultan of the Ottoman Empire for a brief period from 1807 to 1808. During his reign, he faced challenges such as internal unrest and external threats to the empire. Mustafa IV made efforts to modernize the military and administrative systems of the empire. However, his reign was marked by political turbulence and ended with his deposition and subsequent execution in 1808. Mustafa IV's rule was characterized by his attempts to navigate the complexities of governing a vast and diverse empire during a time of significant change.

Alexander was the third emperor of the Macedonian dynasty, ruling briefly from 912 to 913. During his short reign, he focused on strengthening the Byzantine Empire's defenses and military forces. He faced internal rebellions and external threats, particularly from the Bulgarian Empire. Alexander worked to maintain stability within the empire and restore order in the face of these challenges. Despite his efforts, his reign was cut short by his untimely death in 913.

John II Komnenos, also known as "John the Beautiful" or "John the Good," was the Byzantine emperor from 1118 to 1143. He was a dedicated and pious monarch who aimed to restore the Byzantine Empire's power. During his reign, John made significant military alliances, defeated various enemies in the Balkans and Asia Minor, and expanded Byzantine control over territories in the east. His campaigns changed the balance of power in the region, leading to the recapture of numerous towns and fortresses.

Onesimus, a slave to Philemon of Colossae, transitioned to become a significant figure in the Christian community. Referred to as The Holy Apostle Onesimus in the Eastern Orthodox Church, he possibly served as a bishop in Ephesus according to Ignatius of Antioch. His journey from slavery to a respected member of the church showcases his transformation and dedication to the Christian faith. Through his professional life, Onesimus demonstrated resilience, faith, and leadership, leaving a lasting impact on those around him.

Heraclonas briefly served as Byzantine emperor in 641 following the death of his father, Emperor Heraclius. Initially ruling jointly with his brother Constantine III, Heraclonas became sole emperor after his brother's death. Due to his young age, he was under the regency of his mother, Empress Martina. However, his reign was short-lived as he was overthrown by Valentinus, a general and usurper, who installed Constans II as the new emperor. Heraclonas was mutilated, exiled to Rhodes, and believed to have died the following year.

Isaac II Angelos was Byzantine Emperor from 1185 to 1195, and co-Emperor with his son from 1203 to 1204. He seized power in a revolt against Emperor Andronikos Komnenos. Isaac's reign saw conflicts with the Normans in Sicily, the Bulgarians, and the Fourth Crusade. He faced internal challenges, including revolts and conspiracies. Despite some military successes, his rule was marked by financial difficulties and political instability, eventually leading to his overthrow and death in 1204.

Anthemius rose through the ranks in the Eastern Roman Empire, securing promotions and gaining favor as a potential successor to Emperor Marcian. However, after Marcian's death, Aspar appointed Leo instead. Leo later designated Anthemius as Western emperor, leading him to confront military challenges from the Visigoths and Vandals. Despite facing resistance from his general Ricimer, Anthemius refused to yield and aimed to rule independently, ultimately resulting in a fatal conflict that cost him his throne and life in 472.

Theodosius II became Roman emperor at a young age and ruled over the Eastern Empire as its sole emperor following his father's death. During his reign, he implemented the Theodosian law code, which had a lasting impact on Roman legal systems. He oversaw the construction of the formidable Theodosian Walls of Constantinople, enhancing the city's defenses. Additionally, Theodosius II faced significant theological challenges, including the Nestorianism and Eutychianism controversies, which he navigated during his tenure as emperor.

Ahmed II ascended to the throne as the Sultan of the Ottoman Empire in 1691, ruling until 1695. During his reign, he faced internal conflicts and external threats, including wars with the Holy League and the Habsburg Monarchy. Ahmed II implemented administrative reforms and sought to strengthen the empire's military capabilities. He also focused on economic development and infrastructure projects to improve the empire's stability and prosperity. Ahmed II's professional life was marked by efforts to maintain and expand the Ottoman Empire's power and influence.

John VIII Palaiologos was the penultimate Byzantine emperor, ruling from 1425 to 1448. He focused on efforts to reunify the Orthodox and Catholic churches, seeking to mend the Great Schism. In addition, he prioritized the defense of Constantinople against the growing threat of the Ottoman Empire. His reign was marked by diplomatic endeavors and military strategies to safeguard the Byzantine capital. John VIII's professional life was dedicated to the political and religious challenges facing the Byzantine Empire during a tumultuous period in its history.

Constantine VIII was the Byzantine emperor for 66 years, making him the longest-reigning Roman emperor since Augustus. Despite being nominal co-emperor since 962, he showed little interest in politics, statecraft, and the military. His brief sole reign was marked by government mismanagement and neglect. Constantine had no sons and was succeeded by Romanos Argyros, the husband of his daughter Zoe.

Ahmed III was the Sultan of the Ottoman Empire who ascended to the throne in 1703. He faced challenges in dealing with the influential janissaries, despite efforts to appease them. Grand Vizier Çorlulu Ali Pasha played a crucial role in assisting Ahmed with administrative matters and maintaining stability in the government. Ahmed was known for his intellectual pursuits, including a passion for reading, calligraphy, and knowledge of history and poetry. Under his rule, new measures were implemented to improve the treasury and counter rival factions.

Basiliscus served as a magister militum per Thracias under Emperor Leo I before becoming Eastern Roman emperor in 475. Despite initial military successes, his decision-making during the failed invasion of the Vandal Kingdom led to heavy financial losses for the empire. Facing opposition from both his subjects and political allies, Basiliscus attempted to bolster his support by embracing the miaphysite faction within the church. Ultimately, his reign ended in defeat and exile after being overthrown by Zeno in 476.

Michael II was a skilled soldier who rose through the ranks alongside Leo V the Armenian. Together, they orchestrated the overthrow of Emperor Michael I Rangabe, with Michael eventually seizing power after Leo's assassination. Despite facing challenges such as the revolt of Thomas the Slav and military defeats in Sicily and Crete, Michael strengthened the official revival of iconoclasm in the Byzantine Empire during his reign. His tenure marked by both military triumphs and setbacks, shaping the course of Byzantine history.

Basil II Porphyrogenitus, known as the Bulgar Slayer, ruled as the senior Byzantine emperor for nearly 50 years, the longest reign in Roman history. He faced civil wars and successfully expanded the eastern frontier, subjugating the First Bulgarian Empire and engaging in conflicts with the Fatimid Caliphate and the Khazar Khaganate. Basil's administrative reforms strengthened the empire economically and militarily, leading to a period of prosperity after his death. His strategic marriage alliances, such as with Vladimir I of Kiev, had long-lasting cultural and religious impacts.

Anastasius I Dicorus was a career civil servant who became Eastern Roman emperor in 491. Chosen by Ariadne, the wife of his predecessor Zeno, Anastasius implemented reforms and improvements in the empire's government, finances, economy, and bureaucracy during his reign. His legacy included leaving the empire with a stable government, reinvigorated monetary economy, and a significant budget surplus. Many of his reforms had a long-lasting impact, influencing the empire for centuries to come.

Sargon II was a powerful king of the Neo-Assyrian Empire, reigning from 722 BC until his death in battle in 705. He established the Sargonid dynasty, drawing inspiration from ancient rulers like Sargon of Akkad and Gilgamesh. Known for his military prowess, Sargon expanded Assyrian territory, stabilized control over the Levant, weakened Urartu, and reconquered Babylonia. He enacted political and military reforms, promoted justice, integrated foreign peoples into the empire, and elevated the status of women and scribes. Despite his accomplishments, his untimely death impacted his legacy.

Dündar Ali Osman Osmanoğlu served as the 45th Head of the House of Osman, which was the ruling dynasty of the Ottoman Empire until its abolition. He carried the title of Şehzade (prince) and played a significant role in preserving the legacy and heritage of the Ottoman dynasty. Throughout his professional life, Dündar Ali Osman Osmanoğlu worked diligently to uphold the traditions and historical importance of the House of Osman, ensuring its continued recognition and relevance in modern times.

Justin II served as the Eastern Roman emperor from 565 to 578. He faced the challenge of managing an empire that was both enlarged and overextended, with fewer resources than his predecessor, Justinian I. In an attempt to emulate Justinian's reputation, Justin II halted the payment of tributes to neighboring empires, leading to conflicts with the Sassanid Empire and a devastating Lombard invasion in Italy. These decisions resulted in significant territorial losses for the Roman Empire during his reign.

Theodosius III was a tax collector in Adramyttium before becoming Byzantine emperor from c. May 715 to 25 March 717. He rose to power after the Byzantine navy and troops of the Opsician Theme revolted against Emperor Anastasius II. Although viewed as a puppet ruler by many themes, Theodosius successfully seized Constantinople and ruled until he was forced to abdicate in favor of Leo, who then became the emperor. Theodosius retired to a monastery following his abdication.

Michael VII Doukas, also known as Parapinakes, served as the senior Byzantine emperor from 1071 to 1078. His reign was marked by incompetence and heavy reliance on court officials, particularly his finance minister Nikephoritzes. The empire faced challenges such as the loss of Bari, open revolt in the Balkans, and conflicts with the Seljuk Turks. Financial mismanagement, including increased taxation and luxury spending, led to mutinies within the army. Michael abdicated in 1078 and later retreated to a monastery.

Alexios IV Angelos served as the Byzantine Emperor for a brief period from August 1203 to January 1204. His reign was marked by his controversial decision to seek the assistance of the Fourth Crusade in a bid to gain power. This decision had disastrous consequences as it led to the eventual sack of Constantinople. Alexios IV Angelos is widely considered one of the worst Byzantine emperors due to the catastrophic outcome of his actions during his short-lived rule.

Mausolus was a prominent ruler of Caria and a satrap of the Achaemenid Empire during 377–353 BCE. He held the titles of king or dynast due to his father Hecatomnus establishing the powerful Hecatomnid dynasty. Mausolus also extended his rule over Lycia, parts of Ionia, and the Dodecanese islands. Notably, he is revered for commissioning the construction of the Mausoleum at Halicarnassus, a monumental tomb that became one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World, often attributed to his wife and sister Artemisia.

Alexios V Doukas was the Byzantine emperor for a brief period prior to the sack of Constantinople by the Fourth Crusade. He came to power through a palace coup, eliminating his predecessors. Despite vigorous efforts to defend the city, his military strategies were ultimately unsuccessful. While he garnered popular support, he alienated the city's elite. Following the fall of Constantinople, he was blinded and later executed by the new Latin regime. Alexios V was the last Byzantine emperor to rule in Constantinople until its recapture in 1261.

Hussein bin Ali al-Hashimi was an Arab leader who served as the Sharif and Emir of Mecca from 1908. He later proclaimed the Great Arab Revolt against the Ottoman Empire, becoming King of the Hejaz from 1916 to 1924. After declaring himself Caliph following the abolition of the Ottoman Caliphate, he faced opposition from various powers. His refusal to sign certain treaties led to a loss of British support, resulting in his abdication in 1924 and eventual exile to Cyprus before passing away in 1931.

Andronikos II Palaiologos reigned as Byzantine emperor from 1282 to 1328. His rule saw the final decline of the restored empire as the Turks conquered most of Byzantium's Anatolian territories. Towards the end of his reign, he faced internal conflict in the form of the First Palaiologan Civil War, where he fought against his own grandson. The war led to his forced abdication in 1328. Following this, Andronikos retired to a monastery for the remainder of his life.

Romanos II became the Byzantine Emperor at a young age, succeeding his father Constantine VII. During his brief reign from 959 to 963, he faced various challenges and conflicts within the empire. Despite his sudden and mysterious death, Romanos II left a legacy that paved the way for his sons Basil II and Constantine VIII to take the throne. His reign was marked by efforts to consolidate power and maintain the stability of the Byzantine Empire during a turbulent period.

Alexios III Angelos, also known as Alexios Komnenos during his reign, ascended to the Byzantine throne after deposing his brother Isaac II Angelos. His reign was marked by the mismanagement of the defense of Constantinople during the Fourth Crusade attack in 1203. Fleeing the city with one of his daughters, he attempted to rally supporters but was captured by Marquis Boniface of Montferrat. After failed plots against his son-in-law, he spent his final days confined to a monastery in Nicaea.